Reinforcements and Rewards not the same

Introduction

Children of all ages have to make a choice each time they are in the classroom, home or elsewhere. They may choose to work and behave well in order to receive rewards or put up an unacceptable behaviour and suffer the consequences. Pupils everywhere work hard when they are motivated with rewards. What constitute a reward varies from school to school. Several scholars have discussed the issue of ‘rewards’ and ‘reinforcements’. But I believe that a better way to understand these two subjects is to find the origin. What triggered the evolution of ‘reinforcements’ and ‘rewards’? How did it find its way into psychology, how practical and relevant is it in contemporary societies? These are issues that I seek to find. These shall form the basis of my discussion.

The Origin of reinforcement and reward?
‘Through classical conditioning, an organism associates different stimuli that it does not control. Through operant conditioning, the organism associates its behaviours with consequences. Behaviours followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers decrease. This simple but powerful principle has many applications, and also several important qualifications.’(Myers D. G., Psychology; 2004, seventh ed.)

The statement above clearly indicates the origin of ‘reinforcement’, comparing classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Ivan Pavlov a Russian Physiologist, whose work contributed a lot to learning principles, introduced classical conditioning. In his study, Pavlov sought to know whether an organism could associate two events as they occur together without their control? Edward Thorndike (1874-1949), conducted a study on ‘Animal Intelligence’ describing how he used cats and ‘puzzle boxes’ to establish the law of effects. The law of effect, states that; Rewarded behaviour is likely to recur.

Thorndike’s works also inspired others like Ivan Pavlov to experiment with dogs, and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) experimented with rats in an operant chamber, which later became known as ‘Skinners box’. Using Thorndike’s law of effects as a starting point, Skinner developed a ‘behavioural technology’ that formed the principles of behaviour control. According to Myers, through operant conditioning organisms associate behaviours and get to learn their consequences. Due to this they become more likely to repeat rewarded (reinforced) behaviours and less likely to repeat punished behaviours. Notice in this statement that Myers is using the word ‘reinforced’ to refer to ‘rewarded behaviours’. That is a bit thought provoking because one is compelled to believe that when one is repeatedly rewarded for behaviour then that act of repetition is equal to ‘reinforcement’. Does it mean then, that rewards and reinforcements are the same? Or it has to come with some degree of frequency? These questions are very important because, by definition the Encarta® World English Dictionary (1999) states that reinforcement is ‘the addition of strengthening or supporting material to make something stronger or more durable; it is also the rewarding positive reinforcement or punishing negative reinforcement of particular actions, especially in an experimental situation, for the purpose of changing a subject’s behavior.’ If this definition is anything to go by, then it should be clear in our minds that ‘reinforcements’ and ‘rewards’ are not the same.

Meanwhile, operant conditioning involves operant behaviour, which is so called because the act of an organism operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli – Skinner states. Now take note of the phrase ‘punishing stimuli’. This presupposes that an organism’s behaviour in a given environment could earn him a reward or a punishment.
If punishment is involved in the entire operant principle, then it can be likened to sanctions.

In a typical classroom situation, a pupil who misbehaves could be reminded of the consequences of sanctions that could be metered out. Sanctions given to the pupil as consequences of a poor or challenging behaviour may come in different forms. They include, detention, time-out, referral, written letter, call to parents, be on report for a time period, withdrawal of favours and opportunities, community service and exclusion. On the other hand, when a pupil does something that could be regarded as good behaviour, there should be a reward for that child. Among the numerous rewards, verbal praise, awards, written comments in exercise books and gift items could be offered to the child. Others include, written letters sent home, special certificates designed by the teacher, tokens, stamps and stars, vouchers and display of pupil’s name on the notice board as student of the week.

Grant Bulmuo, in his book entitled Classroom behaviour management, states that, ‘the list of rewards and sanctions is endless. Since every school has policies for rewards and consequences new teachers are advised to always enquire before using a particular form. Continuity and consistency is the key to effective and successful rewards and sanctions system in every school.’ These rewards and sanctions go a long way to shape behaviour in the classroom and in my estimation they are better alternatives to traditional whipping and smacking of children in the classroom.

Based on this premise, I wish to state categorically, that if teachers will use these tools to control behaviour in schools it will yield better results than smacking. Let me quickly add, that rewards are not the same as reinforcements. Rather it is the rate at which rewards (like those mentioned above) are offered to pupils and students that reinforcement occurs. I am saying this with emphasis on frequency, i.e. the rate at which the behaviour of a child is rewarded or sanctioned. According to Wikipedia, ‘Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behaviuor analysis for the process of increasing the rate or probability of a behaviuor in the form of a "response" by the delivery or emergence of a stimulus (e.g. a candy) immediately or shortly after performing the behaviour. The response strength is assessed by measuring frequency, duration, latency, accuracy, and/or persistence of the response after reinforcement stops.’ Yet Skinner’s concept of reinforcement, is ‘any event that increase the frequency of a preceding response’. (Myers D. G. 2004).

Take note of the issue of time, frequency and persistence and how these things determine the response rate or the response strength to behaviour. For example, my 3-year old girl, will always whine or cry for everything she wants or needs, whether it is good or bad. Now the act of whining is annoying and to me a bad behaviour. If I give the child a candy (reward) she will stop crying but the behaviour still remains. If she cries and I do not give her a candy (sanction) she might stop crying – learning that crying is not the best way to ask for her needs. We can glean from this scenario that, rewards and sanctions can be positive or negative, but the frequency is what determines the response strength to behaviour.

Understanding Reinforcement
According to Myers D. G. (2004), Skinner’s definition of reinforcement is ‘any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response’. In another definition introduced by Psychology 101 in chapter 4: Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology, ‘the term ‘reinforce’ means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response.’ For example, if you want your cat to run on command, you may give him a bowl of milk every time he runs for you. With time the cat will come to understand that running, when told to, will result in a treat. This treat is reinforcement because he likes it and will therefore, like to run when instructed to do so.

Types of Reinforcement
From chapter 3 of the LEMASS Notes on Counselling theories, I have learned that reinforcement come in four(4) different types. They are:
• Positive reinforcement: When your child cleans his room, give him a small reward that he likes so that in future he will remember to clean his room.
• Negative reinforcement: When your child cleans his room, do not spank him (you have warned him about getting spanked if he does not clean his room). Hopefully in future he will remember to clean his room.
• Positive punishment: When your two children fight with each other, give them both a spanking so that in future they will not repeat the behaviour.
• Negative punishment: When your two children fight with each other, do not take them shopping. Hopefully they will stop fighting because what they really want is to go to shopping.
A question often asked is whether reinforcement is the same as reward? The answer is no. It is inappropriate to use the term reward because in essence, reward does not always result in an increase of a particular behaviour. Parents and teachers often reward children with the hope that they will repeat a targeted behaviour. What if the reward is not something the receiver likes? Then it is no use rewarding. (Paraphrased from LEMASS notes, chapter 3: Counselling theories II, P.45-46).

Understanding reinforcers?
Most people think that reinforcers are rewards. According to Skinner in his study reinforcers are ‘actually anything that serves to increase behaviour’. (Myers D. G. 2004). Reinforcers vary with circumstance. What is reinforcing to one person may not be to another. Again reinforcers can be classified in two parts. They are:
• Primary reinforcers e.g. getting food when hungry or being relieved of a muscle pain with an ointment.
• Secondary reinforcers are supposed to be learned in as much as they get their power through association with primary reinforcers.

In order to show the relationship between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers, Myers D. G. 2004, p. 325, cited an example saying that, ‘if a rat in a skinner box learns that a light reliably signals that food is coming, the rat will work to turn on the light. The light has become a secondary reinforcer associated with food.’ He further states that ‘Our lives are filled with potential secondary reinforcers – money, good grades, a pleasant tone of voice, a word of praise – each of which may have been linked with more basic rewards.’

What I gather from this assertion is that, primary reinforcers are ‘rewards’ e.g. food, money, water, et cetera. But secondary reinforcers are internal or external activities that one has to do to trigger or receive a ‘reward’. That means rewards and reinforsers are different but closely related because they need to work together to ‘shape’ or ‘strengthen’ behaviour.
In a panel discussion at the second annual "Behavioral Safety Now" users conference in Houston last November, for example, Aubrey Daniels warned a large audience to realize the special status of "positive reinforcement" and to act accordingly. The implication was that reinforcers are much more important than rewards, feedback celebrations, and recognition.

Shaping behaviour
Shaping behaviour was also an essential part of Skinner’s experiment. Skinner’s experiments gave birth to what became known as ‘shaping’, - a procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, gradually guide an animal’s actions toward a desired behaviour. (Myers D. G. 2004. p. 323). Skinner’s box was soundproof, with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a reward of food or water, and a device that records these responses. It must be mentioned, however, that these earlier experiments aimed at studying the subject of ‘learning’ and how organisms learn. To date, it is a phenomenon to know that learning is described ‘as a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience’ (Myers D.G. 2004, p. 309). That change can happen but with time. So Myers explains that successive approximations is a method that can be used to shape behaviour. This method of successive approximations, suggests that responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behaviour must be rewarded and all other responses must be ignored. For instance, if my six-year old girl should make successive attempts at doing her homework and yet is not able to finish it, then that successive approximations (trying to get close to finishing the work) must be rewarded. By this animal trainers and researchers have gradually shaped complex behaviour.

Summary
I would like to conclude my argument by reiterating that reinforcements and rewards are not the same. Various studies have revealed that rewards and reinforcers are not the same, neither is reinforcement the same as reward. We must remember that rewards are incentives for response to a particular behaviour to be strengthened. But reinforcement also depends on the circumstance at stake and the frequency at which the reward is given over a period of time. Learning that reinforcement can be positive or negative, means that clients who seek counseling can receive positive or negative reinforcement but depending on the circumstance and the period between intense crisis and when the crisis should end. I guese counselors, teachers and parents must take this theory seriously in order to shape behaviour of children and clients, because once these parties have used this strategy to check behaviour, the more influence they effect in a client’s life.

REFERENCES

Aubrey D. (1993). Bringing out the best in people: How to apply the astonishing power of positive reinforcement. (Kindle Ed.). Rewards and Positive Reinforcers are Not the Same: But We Need Both.

Allpsych & Heffna Media Group Inc. (1993-2004), Learning theory and behavioral psychology; Published at, http://www.allpsych.com/psychology101/reinforcement.html

Bulmuo G. (2005). Classroom behaviour management; training manual. London, UK.

AIT/ OUM LEMASS notes on guidance and counselling, chapter 3: Counselling theories II, p. 45-46
Myers D. G. (2004). Psychology (Seventh ed.): Worth Publisher, USA
Rozycki E. G. (1999. Are rewards reinforcers? On Probabilizing Behavior. Published in Ethics 84,4 July 1974 as "More on Rewards and Reinforcers: a reply to Michael Schleifer"

The Encarta® World English Dictionary (1999).

Thorndike E. L. (2010). Animal intelligence; experimental studies: Forgotten books, Nabus press.

http://www.mightystudents.com/essay/

http://www.safetyperformance.com/Articles_1998

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_of_reinforcement#Schedules_of_reinforcement